A Brief History of International Collaborations and Partnerships in Higher Education

For higher education institutions in the early 21st century, the reality of a closely interconnected world is forcing a shift in orientation. Increasing global competition for students drives recruitment efforts onto the international playing field, and increasing demand from a new generation of students for access to the globalized world compels institutions to seek ways to provide such access as part of the educational offering. Meanwhile, emerging global markets for higher education are attracting the attention of long-established institutions in the developed world; and researchers are discovering new opportunities and means to collaborate with colleagues who have similar interests in institutions in other countries.

The most significant way for higher education institutions to gain access for their students to educational experiences in foreign countries, to attract international students and faculty to their own campuses, and to encourage research collaborations across borders, is through the formation of partnerships (also referred to as relationships, collaborations, and alliances,) with institutions and organizations located or operating in other countries. For the purpose of this paper, discussion centers on the collaborations and partnerships between higher education institutions, departments of institutions, or even individual faculty, which aim to achieve some goal, such as student or faculty exchange, or collaborative research. These agreements may be more or less formal, but are usually approved by the institution’s senior administration. Although universities and colleges may enter into partnerships with other types of entities, such as industrial corporations or private recruitment firms, the focus here is on relationships between higher education institutions, or what are referred to as “academic partnerships” (e.g. Boston University, 2006), though with the recent rise of partnerships between universities and for-profit companies for academic purposes, these are also considered.

International partnerships are a not a new phenomenon. However, the rationales for their creation, and the nature and extent of the partnerships, have undergone profound change in the past decade. In order to analyze the causes and the results of this evolution, three periods or ‘phases’ of the growth of collaborations and partnerships are proposed. Stage 1 can be called the pre-globalization phase, which encompasses most of the 20th century. The use of this term is not meant to imply that globalization was not occurring prior to the end of the 20th century; rather, until that time, the process was much more gradual and not widely recognized. Stage 2, the globalization phase, began in the late 1980s with the advent of the internet and mass travel, and was firmly established by the time Thomas Friedman declared in 2005 that “The World is Flat.” (Friedman, 2005) The final stage, the post-globalization phase - in which the interconnectedness of the world is taken for granted, just as the nation-state is today - is yet to come: how will collaborations and partnerships develop in the future? Although we cannot say for sure, there are plenty of clues to be found among current developments to allow us to make some informed guesses.

The analysis that follows illustrates an evolution in international partnerships that is closely related to the onset of globalization and institutions’ responding through a process of internationalization. During this process, the trend has been for international partnerships to evolve from relatively informal to relatively formal; from relatively simple to relatively complex; from relatively small in number to relatively large in number; and from the status of institutional ‘add-on’ to being an essential component of an all-encompassing process of internationalization.

The Pre-Globalization Phase
Altbach and Knight (2006) described medieval universities as international – de Wit (1999) used the term “cosmopolitan” - in that they attracted “the wandering scholar looking for knowledge and an understanding of other cultures.” (de Wit, 1999, para. 7). The rise of the nation state turned the focus of universities inward, and by the twentieth century study abroad and other international activity initiated by the university was an attempt to reach out into ‘foreign’ countries and cultures. Far from being an imperative in a rapidly shrinking world, study abroad was an experience to be had when relatively autonomous nation states still held each other at arm’s length.

International collaborations and partnerships arose mostly in an unplanned and piecemeal way, with collaborations being formed to serve the needs of institutions, departments, and faculty to work together on research, conduct faculty and student exchange, and permit students to engage in study abroad experiences. Mostly this was a sideline or ‘add-on’ activity, reserved for a small number of faculty and students with international interests, such as students of modern languages who wanted or were required by their departments to spend some time studying in a country where the language of study was spoken, or an architecture department that offered its students exposure to European architectural styles and ideas through a period of study abroad (for example, Wentworth Institute of Technology, 2010). A characteristic of a program like this was complementarity: students were able to gain an experience in their discipline, or use facilities in the host institution that the home institution was not able to offer. As Boston University’s Subcommittee on International Partnerships described them, “Academic collaborations allow for scholarly exchange and alliances where the two institutions might have complementary programs.” (Boston University, 2006, p. 4)

In the case of study abroad, the visit may have been organized by a study abroad office, or it may have been organized at the departmental level, sometimes the result of personal relationships between faculty members of the home and host institutions. Typical of the approach was that of Michigan State University, which described various types of agreements for various purposes, such as faculty and student exchange, study abroad, and collaborative research, but which did not necessarily articulate an institutional vision for internationalization. (Michigan State University, 2010)

Collaborations and partnerships arose also to some extent out of a desire on the part of students to explore the unknown, the world out there, to broaden one’s mind by experiencing a new country, somewhat in the tradition of the European “Grand Tour” that was undertaken by young aristocrats starting in the sixteenth century in order to round out their classical education. Indeed, as Altbach points out, “American colleges and universities, especially those in the upper tier of prestige, have long declared their interest in providing students with an international consciousness and, if possible, an overseas experience, as part of their undergraduate education.” (Altbach, 2004, p. 6)

Other rationales for international initiatives included serving Americans overseas; serving students abroad who wanted an American degree; and, in the case of the many branch campuses opened by U.S. institutions in Japan in the 1970s, for financial reasons. (ibid p. 8 – 9) The University of Chicago Business School opened a branch campus in Barcelona in the 1990s to extend its brand internationally, serve executives who would not be able to attend a program in Chicago, and, by having top faculty teach in the program and then return to Chicago, to have them “create courses that can be taken back to Chicago” (Trapp, 1993) and thus enrich the program there. None of these rationales represented, either individually or in combination with others, a conscious and articulated strategy for internationalization at the institutional level. Nor were they, as Altbach and Knight (2006) have pointed out, a particularly profit-making activity, though Altbach and Knight acknowledged that “such activities may enhance the competitiveness, prestige, and strategic alliances of the college.” (Altbach & Knight, 2006, p. 3)

Beyond such institutional-level rationales for international activities, political rationales played a part in promoting some international activity in higher education. De Wit (1999) pointed out that with the rise of the U.S. as a global power, especially after World War II, knowledge of other cultures and languages became critical, and universities received federal funding to deliver area studies, foreign language, and study abroad programs, ostensibly in the interest of furthering world peace, but likely also, in the context of the Cold War, in order to gain a better understanding of potential allies and opponents. (Andringa, 2001) The Fulbright Program, established in 1946 and sponsored by the U.S. Department of State, offered further encouragement to American students to pursue studies abroad for similar reasons. (CIES). One of the key impacts of the Fulbright program, according to a 2002 evaluation, was to initiate long-term partnerships between the participating faculty of the home and host institutions: “75% have continued to collaborate with colleagues since their grant’s completion,” according to an SRI International report. (SRI International, 2010) A federally sponsored initiative like Fulbright, in other words, provided a part of the ‘backdrop’ against which institutional collaborations and partnerships could arise.

Thus, in the pre-globalization phase, international collaborations and partnerships among higher education institutions arose in a somewhat piecemeal way, initiated at the faculty, department, or institutional level, but in most cases not representing a strategic push toward institutional internationalization.

The Globalization Phase
By the end of the 20th century, the Cold War was over, the world was rapidly becoming connected via the internet, international travel was easier and cheaper than ever, and multinational (now global) businesses were developing worldwide networks and integrated supply chains, aided in part by the removal of trade restrictions. The process of globalization was rapidly creating a global market for goods, services, and culture. Although the start of the process of globalization might be traced back hundreds or even thousands of years, the rapid integration of world cultures made possible by a combination of factors at the end of the 20th century can be seen as a “tipping point” (Gladwell, 2002) in the process which increased the rate and level of cross-border flows of information, people, goods, and services enormously.
Knight defined globalization simply as “the flow of technology, economy, knowledge, people, values, and ideas…across borders.” (Knight, 2003, para.10) Higher education became involved in this process. According to Altbach and Knight, globalization constituted an amalgam of “economic, political, and societal forces pushing 21st century higher education toward greater international involvement.” (Altbach & Knight, 2006, p. 1), and de Wit characterized the response of institutions thus:

Not only are nations and international bodies placing greater emphasis on international cooperation and exchange, but the institutions themselves are developing their own strategies to internationalize research and teaching. (de Wit, 1999, para. 1)

Simultaneously, there was a growing awareness among the populations of developed countries of the importance of international experiences in higher education. With globalization came the realization that to succeed in the work place, people needed the knowledge and skills to be able to succeed in cross-border and cross-cultural interactions. They needed intercultural competence, language skills, knowledge of the wider world beyond their own country’s borders. Universities were perceived as a means to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills in a globalizing world. According to a 2000 American Council on Education report, over 70% of respondents to a public opinion survey believed that students in higher education should study or work abroad before graduating. (American Council on Education, 2000)
As a result, in many institutions, a more consciously implemented strategy of institutional internationalization was initiated, one that was to supersede the unplanned array of activities already in place. Referring mainly to the international activities of universities in the U.S. and other countries of “the industrialized north,” Altbach expressed this evolution thus: “While higher education has always had an international dimension, with more than a million students studying overseas and with many collaborative arrangements among universities, this multinational thrust is a new development.” (Altbach, 2000, para. 3)

This notion of higher education institutions becoming strategic about their international activities is a defining feature of the globalization phase. As de Wit explained, this new strategic approach to higher education internationalization was distinct from the implementation of a few internationally focused activities; and distinct also from the rationales given for these activities, such as “peace and mutual understanding” or “the needs of an ever more international labor market.” (de Wit, 1999, para. 3)

Jane Knight, in a 2003 paper, defined the new internationalization as, “the process of integrating an international, intercultural, or global dimension into the purpose, functions, or delivery of postsecondary education.” (Knight, 2003, para.5) Key to this definition is the word integrating: Knight elaborated on the term as follows: “the process of infusing or embedding the international and intercultural dimension into policies and programs to ensure that the international dimension remains central, not marginal, and is sustainable.” (ibid, para.8) She distinguished between an activity approach to internationalization – comprising study abroad, faculty exchange, research collaboration, and so on – and other, ‘deeper’ institutional approaches that she referred to as the competency approach, the ethos approach, and the process approach, each of which embeds internationalization into the fabric of the institution. (Andringa, 2001) Hence, a globalization-inspired approach to collaborations and partnerships differed from previous practice in that collaborations and partnerships were starting to be seen by some institutions as integral to a more comprehensive institutional approach to internationalization, rather than an add-on or a series of unplanned and unsystematic linkages.

This is not to say that U.S. higher education as a whole was quick to respond to globalization. In 2000, the American Council on Education reported that little progress had been made: foreign language enrollment was in decline, only 3% of students studied abroad during their university career, the average duration of study abroad was becoming shorter, with few students spending more than a semester in a foreign country, and international awareness among students was low. (American Council on Education, 2000) Although the report stated that, “Increasingly, college and university leaders are emphasizing a commitment to internationalization and its importance on their campuses,” (ibid p. 16) on most campuses there appeared to be little to show for it. The report’s conclusion acknowledged, though that, “It is also likely there are exciting, innovative activities going on in international education about which we are unaware – programs that are missed by traditional measures or reflect innovative techniques using the Internet or other new technology.” (American Council on Education, 2000, p. 29) However, its overall assessment was pessimistic: the data, it stated, “paint a disturbing picture of the state of internationalization in U.S. higher education as a whole, and suggest that we are slipping further behind the poor performance levels found when ACE carried out its assessment in 1986-87.” (ibid)
This view was reinforced by Altbach four years later. He acknowledged the large number of international students studying in the U.S., but pointed out that, “they constitute only 2.7 percent of undergraduate students in four-year institutions and 13.3 percent of graduate students – a much lower percentage than for other major host countries.” (Altbach, 2004, p. 7) However, Altbach recognized that U.S. higher education was on the cusp of what he called “The New Transnationalism:”

We are at the beginning of the era of transnational higher education, in which academic institutions from one country operate in another, academic programs are jointly offered by universities from different countries, and higher education is delivered through distance technologies. (ibid)

As evidence of the onset of this new era, Altbach and Knight reported a significant increase in international alliances, including the involvement by foreign universities in the establishment of new universities in Saudia Arabia, joint degree programs offered by institutions in developing southeast Asian nations and those in developed countries, the setting up of branch campuses in Africa, and others. (Altbach & Knight, 2006)

Institutions that embraced the goal of internationalization made it a part of their mission or strategic plan. Northeastern University announced a new strategic plan in 2009, in which internationalization was to play a key role. Referring to the internationalization goals for the university, Northeastern president Joseph Aoun was recently quoted, “In our rapidly changing world, students need to become inquisitive, life-long learners with a global perspective…higher education today must be driven by the mission to prepare students to succeed in a global economy and become engaged members of a global society.” (Northeastern University, 2010)

Beyond the somewhat idealistic talk of preparing students for the ‘global society,’ however, it can be argued that competition for students has become a key driver of institutional internationalization. This ‘survival rationale’ for internationalization has bred cynicism among some that universities’ enrollment of international students is financially motivated. Altbach in particular has alluded to this, claiming in 2004 that, “the primary goal of many of the branch campuses and transnational programs is to enrich the home campus,” (Altbach, 2004, p. 8) and again, with Knight in 2006, stating that, “many countries recruit international students to earn profits by charging high fees – including Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the US.” (Altbach & Knight, 2006, p. 2) While it may be true that internationalization at the activity level – such as through entering into partnerships with overseas universities - is driven in many institutions by the need for new markets, it is unlikely that it will be sustained without a long-term international strategy which embeds these activities in supportive environments and targeted programs. Nevertheless, questions continue to be raised, now that not-for-profit higher education institutions are entering into partnerships with for-profit companies – from individual study abroad agencies to multinational corporations - to recruit international students and deliver international programming. Many universities that may previously have been reluctant to enter into such arrangements now embrace them as a way to ‘fast-track’ internationalization activities.

One means of doing this is for higher education institutions to work with for-profit companies to provide ‘pathway’ programs to prepare non-English-speaking international students for academic study. The most prominent collaborations involved, Navitas, INTO, and Kaplan, (INTO, 2010; Kaplan International Colleges, 2010; Navitas, 2010) have formed recruitment and academic preparation partnerships with numerous universities in the UK and Australia in the past ten years, (Spencer, 2008) and they are making inroads into the U.S. In 2010, INTO and Kaplan have each partnered with two U.S. universities, and Navitas with one.
The period of rapid globalization and internationalization has thus been a time of enormous change for many institutions of higher education. A strategic move into the global higher education marketplace is prompting more and new types of institutional partnerships. To support the activities that will arise from these partnerships, many institutions are making a deeper, more embedded internationalization ethos a part of their vision for the future.

The Post-Globalization Phase
Though we cannot know for sure what the future holds for international collaborations and partnerships, some trends that are already apparent will likely shape their nature and extent in the coming years.

International partnerships will be seen as integral to the mission and operations of higher education institutions.

The King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) in Saudi Arabia is a new graduate research institution, having opened its doors to students for the first time in September 2009. The university’s vision statement puts forward the aspiration for science and technology research that is “comparable to that of the world’s top 10 science and technology universities…in areas where KAUST can be exceptional by global standards.” (KAUST, 2010b) Even during the university’s start-up phase, research relationships with institutions in Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America were established to support its Global Research Partnership; Academic Excellence Alliances were formed with departments of leading research universities worldwide to help develop KAUST’s curriculum; and Special Academic Partnerships were created to develop campus facilities and jump-start research. (KAUST, 2010a) The KAUST example illustrates well the priorities of a major new university established in an era of globalization. International alliances are seen as integral and are built into the fabric of the university, not ‘add-ons’ or ‘optional extras.’ KAUST may be an example of the university of the future; existing universities undergoing internationalization are faced with the challenge of integrating their international relationships into its operations, but unlike KAUST, may have to overcome institutional inertia and even resistance.

Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) is an example of a U.S. university that is embracing this challenge. It sees a strategic approach to international partnerships as a key factor in a broadly based push for internationalization. (Sutton, 2010) While maintaining the partnerships that have been developed at the school or department level, it is in the process of identifying and engaging with ten to fifteen “strategic” international partners, approved by all the university’s schools, which will serve the university’s academic and research goals, in selected parts of the world. The partners will not only provide opportunities for student and faculty exchange, and collaborative research; the intention is also that references to the partners and their countries will be infused into the curriculum, enabling all students to benefit from them. (ibid)

Institutional collaborations and partnerships will be encouraged by government initiatives

Some national governments have come to recognize the strategic role universities have to play in the nation’s economic and political power in the world. Such recognition can lead to political initiatives that encourage the formation of new forms of collaboration. For example, the British and American writers of a 2008 report commissioned by Prime Minister Gordon Brown described the historic links between UK and U.S. higher education, citing the large numbers of students going to the other country to study, and the existence of programs such as the Rhodes and Marshall scholarship funds, as well as similarities in the structure and values of their respective higher education systems (UK/US Study Group, 2009). Based on concerns, however, that American and British dominance in higher education is under threat from newly emerging higher education systems in countries such as Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, China, and India, and recognizing that many of the world’s problems – climate change and food shortages, for example – require transnational solutions, the report recommends the formation of an Atlantic Trust, which would, among other activities, provide international scholarships for students from the U.S. the UK, and third countries, to study for their undergraduate degrees at institutions in both the U.S. and the UK; and to support research by teams which would include institutions from the UK, the U.S. and a third country. Although the proposed Atlantic Trust has yet to see the light of day, this example illustrates the way that national strategic concerns could influence government policy, which in turn might create an environment that encourages institutional collaboration.

A related and more promising example is a recent report by the British Council (an organization that operates under the auspices of the British government), “U.K.-U.S. Higher-Education Partnerships: Realising the Potential,” which proposed an increase in the number and type of partnerships between U.S. and UK higher education institutions, and further, recommended that they leverage their combined strengths to enter into three-way partnerships with institutions in third countries such as China and India. (Fischer, 2010) The British Council also announced that it would finance, to the tune of $500 000, twenty collaborations between American and British institutions, particularly in the fields of science and technology.

Cross-border multi-governmental initiatives will also play an important role. Over the past decade, the governments of the European Union have been involved in the Bologna process, an initiative to harmonize the higher education systems, including degree structures and credits, of participating nations, (Altbach & Knight, 2006) laying the foundation for cross-border collaboration between European institutions. In Europe, the Bologna process has resulted in the harmonization of higher education systems and greater transparency of academic credentials. It is likely that this will encourage the establishment of cross-border collaborations between European institutions – though in a ‘borderless’ Europe, whether these collaborations will continue to be considered truly international is debatable. Further, it is possible that European institutions will become more active in establishing partnerships with universities outside Europe in order to enroll study abroad students, who may be attracted to the low cost and the “common academic space.” (Altbach, 2004) In fact, opening the Higher Education Area resulting from the Bologna process was the topic of the Bologna Policy Forum in April 2009, which was attended by both representatives of participating countries and also by representatives of around 20 countries outside the process seeking to strengthen ties in the field of higher education. (Europa, 2009) If the Bologna process truly has harmonized the higher education systems of participating nations, then in principle it should be possible to devise multi-university programs for students in which the articulation of credits both among those universities and with the home university outside the area is enormously simplified, making the possibility of a ‘global degree,’ earned at several universities over the course of a student’s academic career, more likely - especially if there is continuing funding for intra-European and worldwide academic partnerships through such initiatives as the European Commission’s Erasmus Mundus program. (European Commission, 2010)

Governmental intervention is also likely to increase through implementation of Bologna-type initiatives in other parts of the world. The Japanese Ministry of Education, for example, has recently announced plans to work with South Korea and China to standardize methods of evaluating academic credentials in order to allow more study abroad among the three countries, according to an article in the Yomiuri Shimbun. (2010) Currently, the article states, individual institutions exchange academic credits at their own discretion. The three-way intergovernmental agreement may eventually be expanded to include all of the member nations of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.

Limited government support may drive more collaborations and partnerships

In contrast to the supportive background provided by governments in other parts of the world, institutions in the United States are unlikely to be able to rely on government support for internationalization activity. As Altbach points out, “the United States…has never had a national approach to international higher education, and the federal government has provided scant support for it.” (Altbach, 2004, p. 11) There are no signs that this will change in the future. U.S. universities will continue to be compelled to sustain themselves, and in a period of declining numbers of American high school graduates, there will be a strong motivation to recruit international students. (Curry, 2008))
Changing economic realities for universities in other developed countries is likely to drive the formation of more international collaborations in order to maintain revenue levels. In the UK, for example, universities are expecting reduced government funding and have been told by Higher Education minister David Lammy that they will need to diversify their sources of funding. (BBC News, 2010)

The nature of collaborations will become more complex and more sophisticated

As universities seek new ways to internationalize their campuses and their students’ experiences, there will likely be a rise in the number of more sophisticated and complex partnerships which bring together various institutions to provide the ‘global experience.’ One example is a new Northeastern University-initiated program, the US.-Sino Pathway program, in which students in China take English and academic courses at various locations in China, delivered by a private, for-profit corporation, Kaplan Higher Education, under Northeastern oversight; after this they spend a summer session at Northeastern or the University of Vermont; and they subsequently matriculate into one of those universities or another of several that have formed a consortium for this purpose. Thus, the student undergoing this experience is handled by three separate institutions in partnership. Another innovative Northeastern program is NUin, which began as a one-semester study abroad experience for freshmen in their first semester, and will offer students a full-year, multi-location option from fall 2010. This may in the near future lead to a program in which students could spend two or three years at various international locations, all the while studying for their ‘Northeastern’ degree. Programs such as these require very close collaboration between the partner institutions if they are to succeed. Indeed, it might be argued that the partnerships involved, which require ‘intermeshing’ some of the operational and strategic activities of each party, and in which each party has an enormous stake in the outcome, will be far closer than the partnerships we have seen in the past. As long ago as 1999, de Wit suggested that universities might follow the lead of industry, with cross-border institutional joint ventures or even mergers. (de Wit, 1999) This does not appear to have happened to any significant extent yet, but with the educational standardization activities of Bologna in Europe, and now in Asia, there may be more potential for this to happen. It is an intriguing thought that where we now have multinational (or global) corporations, we might in the future have multinational – global - universities. Such an institution is most likely to arise in the private, for-profit sector, since private firms tend not to be ‘place-based’ and can in principle establish branch campuses anywhere.

New types of positions and offices will be created

In order to handle the diversity and complexity of partnerships, universities will need to establish dedicated staff positions and offices. These offices and positions will play an increasingly significant role on campus as institutions extend their internationalization activities. At Northeastern University, the NU Global unit was established in the College of Professional Studies to serve as an incubator for international initiatives. The unit is headed by a Senior Associate Dean for International Engagement. Similarly, at Arizona State University, the Office of the Vice President for Global Engagement “was established for the sole purpose of advancing the university’s global initiatives,” (Kussalanant, 2007, para. 4) in large part through creating and maintaining strategic international partnerships. Needless to say, the remit of these offices extends far beyond that of the traditional study abroad office. Indeed, some study abroad offices are likely to be absorbed into these new offices for global initiatives.

Branch campuses will encourage or obviate collaborations, depending on the location

We are currently witnessing a significant rise in the number of branch campuses, primarily of U.S., UK, and Australian institutions, in other countries. The purpose in setting up these campuses may be to facilitate study abroad opportunities for the institution’s domestic students; more importantly, they make it possible for those universities to offer their degrees to those in other localities or regions of the world who would not be able to undertake study in the USA for financial or other reasons. The effect on institutional collaborations will likely vary, depending on the region. In China, for example, foreign universities are not permitted to operate independently, and must enter into partnership with an existing public Chinese university. In some countries of the Middle East, on the other hand, the establishment of branch campuses is not only permitted, but is encouraged through the building of international higher education zones, purpose-built to facilitate the setting up of branch campuses. Dubai International Academic City (DIAC), for example, offers its “partners” not only an educational infrastructure to support academic operations, but also, “special privileges including 100 per cent foreign ownership, tax-free status, full repatriation of profits and seamless visa issuance procedures for students, faculty and the staff.” (Dubai International Academic City, 2010, para. 5) Such opportunities provide institutions the chance to ‘go it alone’ in the global education market, though it is still too early to tell whether branch campuses will meet students’ and institutions’ goals.

Conclusion
This broad-brush survey of the history and future of collaborations and partnerships necessarily leaves out much detail. In particular, it is important to keep in mind that while some institutions have forged ahead in forming international linkages, others have barely begun. Indeed, there are likely to be plenty of institutions that operate in markets that do not compel institutional internationalization, especially vocational institutions that serve local populations, or institutions that can better sustain themselves through other strategies such as online learning. Nonetheless, the overall trends are clear: with the onset of globalization and the subsequent perceived need for many institutions to internationalize, collaborations and partnerships have increased in number, and have become closer, more varied, more complex, and more strategic. Collaborations have come to serve a key role in campus internationalization; and while they are a necessary element in increasing the level of international activity, in order to sustain participants in this activity, institutions will have to make changes to curriculum, faculty, and student support services. Institutions wishing to ready themselves for the post-globalization world – a world in which the interconnectedness of nations and peoples is so pervasive as to be no longer noticeable – must think beyond the piecemeal approach to collaborations and partnerships characteristic of the pre-globalization world. They must devise an institutional strategy which links their students, faculty, and administration to institutions in other countries, and embeds an international ethos into their operations, services, and academic delivery.


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